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The detailed illustrations of the decadent scenes in Monsieur Venus seem to be vividly translated between French and English. The language used in our edition seems as poetic as I imagine the passages would be in the original French.
As with any work in translation, however, there are certain aspects of Rachilde’s story that cannot be explored as thoroughly in our language as in the original. In Monsieur Venus, the subtle alterations of the French pronouns (particularly “tu” and “vous”) do not carry over into our English copies. Luckily for us, the thorough footnotes in Melanie Hawthorne’s translation of the novel give her readers some insight to the thematic significance of the pronouns used throughout the text. The pronouns begin flipping between the formal and informal “you” in Chapter Three.
In this chapter, the reader witnesses Raoule fighting with herself to figure out how to shape her relationship with Jacques. As she pulls aside the curtain to reveal him bathing, she cries “Child, do you know that you are marvelous?” (42), and uses the “tu” form for the first time. This is appropriate, as noted by the footnote, considering that she is addressing him as a child, but it is even more so interesting that Raoule continues to address Jacques in this informal register for the remainder of the chapter. The language she uses degrades Jacques status and serves as a reminder that the characters are of very different social classes, which relates to their status within their intimate relationship as well.
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Raoule is able to dominate Jacques because plays the power-hungry masculine role in their intimate relationship and also holds more social power in their public relations. The “you” pronoun is later used to characterize Raoule and Raittolbe as members of a higher social class when they respectfully address each other in the “vous” form in Chapter Four, which Hawthorne notes is a stark contrast to the relationship between Raoule and Jacques. Jacques would not dare use the “tu” form with Raoule throughout the beginning of the book and all the way until the end of Chapter Four. This is significant because Rachilde develops a complex relationship triangle between the characters of Raoule, Raittolbe, and Jacques, and the “you” form reveals the variations of class and levels of intimacy between the three characters.
In Chapter Six, the simple “tu” pronoun is extremely significant because the informality with which Raoule addresses Jacques in front of Raittolbe unintentionally indicates to Raittolbe that the other two characters are sexually intimate. There are many other examples of “tu” and “vous” indicating the transgression of class lines and degrees of intimacy throughout the novel. Just to mention a few more significant passages, at the end of Chapter Nine during Raittolbe’s moment of homosexual panic, he insults Jacques as a “scoundrel” using the “tu” form.
This word choice emphasizes Raittolbe’s ability to degrade the value of Jacque’s social status due to his belonging to a higher class. In Chapter 10, Marie reveals that she has an intimate relationship with Raittolbe by addressing him in the “tu” form, which is also significant since she belongs to the same class as her brother, Jacques, yet can use this informal register to address someone from a higher class. In Chapter 14, Raoule’s aunt distances herself from Raoule by addressing the character in the “vous” form instead of the more familial, informal way. Also, throughout the duel scene near the end of the story, Raittolbe and Raoule alternate between using the “tu” and the “vous” forms to emphasize the variations between their personal relationship and their relationship to their society as indicated by social class. In all of these examples, Rachilde manipulates the second person pronoun to indicate more than just which character dialogue is targeted towards. The pronoun indicates degrees of intimacy, respect, and status.
The extent to which the meaning of “you” alters throughout the book nearly makes it feel like a homophone/homograph. The variations of the pronoun are easily recognizable in the French edition, but without the footnotes would be devoid of meaning in the English translation. This is somewhat worrisome because the variation of the pronouns in Rachilde’s story serves as a useful strategy to develop the theme of transgressing not only gender lines, but also social classes in Monseiur Venus. If we are to lose the nuanced tension between characters that is so integral to the central themes of the story in our translation, what else might be lacking in a translated addition? What is the significance of pronouns in our own language—how does English similarly indicate boundaries of social class through the connotation of common words? How deliberate was Rachilde’s decision to flip back and forth between the “tu” and “vous” forms? What is the significance of grammatical and connotative discrepancies with any work in translation?
In “The Hungry Woman”, author Cherrie Moraga daringly explores the classical story of Medea through the devastating experiences of a Chicana activist. Although set in different scenarios, the chicana version borrows greatly from Euripides’ play and manages to truthfully depict the feelings of otherness, isolation and almost justifiable revenge that inhabit this famous myth. Through Medea’s unfortunate journey, the author addresses issues that are inherent to Chicana culture by utilizing characteristic elements of the Gothic literary tradition.
Moreover, Moraga allows the masculine anxiety and need for control to emerge naturally through Medea’s sad story. In this way, the author creates a strong connection between the gothic and the suppression of women which places “The Hungry Woman” in the company of other celebrated gothic narratives like Frankenstein, where abhorrence and dread for the mysteriously powerful feminine realm inspires men to commit devilish acts, worthy of the genre. Our Mexican Medea becomes the target of the despotic male quest for unquestioned sovereignty, however, she responds in a violent fashion which defies the expectations of her gender. Moraga’s Medea fights her victimization fiercely. Although her actions grant her a place in an asylum, her attack on the patriarchy, symbolized by Jason, gives her momentary independence and lasting dignity. By examining Medea’s rebellion, I would argue that this haunting play can also be interpreted as a feminist work that shows the desperate attempts of women to reclaim their rightful freedom.
Moraga’s protagonists inhabits a post-apocalypse wasteland, “where yerbas grow bitter for a lack of water”. The aridness of her home mirrors the hopelessness of her situation. Medea tries to survive in a world severely governed by patriarchical notions of righteousness and decorum. This asphyxiating societal control clashes with Medea, especially after this independent intellectual expresses romantic feelings for another woman. Morega shows us the perversity of this system through the persecution of this affair; Medea is not even allow to exercise her selfhood within the confinements of her intimate life.
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Medea’s love for Luna culminates in a forced, humiliating exile from his native town of Aztlan. Her divorce renders her useless and homeless in the city she bravely fought to establish; it prevents her from living in a place she created based on principles of liberty and acceptance. Medea feels like a “huerfana abandonada” in her exile, deprived of her deserved role as a successful activist. As Medea explains to her son, once the women were no longer needed for the revolutionary effort, they were forced back into their “natural” state of subjection. Although land was an important factor inspiring this suppression of female agency, the masculine obsession with power definitely played a decisive part in this political move. Through this unnecessary omission of female civic participation, the men forced women to lurk in the shadows of their domesticity, creating a distinctive line between the male and female worlds. This separation established women as the tamed but still feared other and made their independence an always menacing monster, waiting to emerge.
Medea’s involuntary migration cements her otherness , which had been already establish through her lesbian relationship. It is important to notice that “The Hungry Woman” is set in a futuristic time and therefore, one would expect such a relationship to be viewed with kinder eyes. However, Medea and Luna’s love threatens the traditional role of women as vigilant and submissive beings who live in permanent accordance with their dominant men. The “joteria” is viewed as a toxic and essential aspect of otherness, which defies normalcy and deserves to be suppressed. This is one of the instances when the overwhelming authority of men disrupts Medea’s serenity and the possibility of a happy life.
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In the classical version, Medea is feared and despised for her foreignness-which makes her an unworthy, brutish outsider in the xenophobic eyes of the Greeks-and her known supernatural powers. The full extent of her might is only seen at the end, when she flies off in a golden chariot. This hated foreigner is deft in the way of politics and magic and her potential scandalizes the Greek elite who were accustomed to more conventional, less threatening women.
In Moraga’s play, Medea’s efforts to strengthen her supernatural powers possess a distinctive feminine quality. The characters speak of a Madre Coaticue,a great source of power, capable of creating deities. Similarly to Bless Me, Ultima, Medea’s temporal world is populated by strong males but the supernatural realm can be accessed through feminine figures. This element of female power links the play with the traditional gothic treatment of the fantastical- witches working in the darkness and the like- and also further emphasizes the subtly feminist character of this work. Unable to use her political skills, Medea finds an unorthodox, mighty and strongly feminine way of regaining her authority by making use of the ancestral magic of indigenous people.
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The moment when Jason becomes interested in his long forgotten son is also essential to understand the gender conflict of this play. Medea’s son is thirteen, an age where childhood and adolescence coexist within the developing boy. He is far from being a man but he begins to learn the ways of the world and consequently, the ways of his father and the patriarchy. Medea teaches her son about the reality of life and the treacherous ways of his father. She bluntly tells him of the injustice of men and the cruelly exclusionary nature of normalcy. Through these lessons, Medea hopes that her son will become a better men than those she has known. However, when she sees that Jason is trying to interfere in this process by entering his life (with complete disregard for the child’s well-being), she can predict the kind of men Chac-Mool could potentially be. Moreover, Jason’s intrusion would also mean a return to the evil town that rejected her. Fearing for her son, Medea commits a grave crime. To save the integrity of her son’s soul, still uncorrupted and ignorant of the ways of men, she murders him. She stops her son’s journey to manhood, leaving him with an incomplete gender forever. With this tragic action, Medea prevents the patriarchy from taking the innocence of another young boy and turning them into agents of suppression and violence. Although unquestionably immoral, her decision to kill her son possesses a redemptive quality; she murdered to maintain her integrity and her son’s purity. The apparition of her son’s ghost strengthens the gothicness of the work and also blesses Medea with forgiveness and understanding. After so many tormenting memories and delirious scenes from her past, her actions become partially justifiable through his comforting presence.